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The eight word categories: nouns (people, places, things, ideas), pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections.
Conjunctions do the connecting: the coordinating seven (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so — FANBOYS) join equals, while subordinating conjunctions like because and although attach dependent clauses.
A verb must match its subject in number: singular subjects take singular verbs, plural subjects take plural verbs — regardless of words that come between them.
Compound subjects joined by ‘and’ are usually plural, but with ‘or’ or ‘nor’ the verb agrees with the nearer subject. Collective nouns like team and committee take singular verbs when acting as one unit.
A pronoun must agree with its antecedent — the noun it replaces — in number and gender, and the antecedent must be unambiguous.
Case matters too: subject pronouns (I, he, who) do the acting and object pronouns (me, him, whom) receive it — test compound phrases by dropping the other person (‘Sam and me went’ fails as ‘me went’).
The marks that structure sentences: commas separate elements, semicolons join related independent clauses, colons introduce lists or explanations after a complete sentence, and quotation marks enclose exact speech.
Commas also set off introductory phrases, nonessential clauses, items in a series, and direct addresses. In American usage, periods and commas go inside closing quotation marks.
Apostrophes show possession (the nurse's chart; the nurses' station) or mark contractions (it's = it is); they never form ordinary plurals.
Singular possession adds apostrophe-s; plural nouns ending in s add only the apostrophe (the students’ grades); irregular plurals act singular (the children’s ward). ‘The Smiths’ is a plural, not a possessive — no apostrophe.
Capitalize sentence openers, the pronoun I, and proper nouns — specific names of people, places, organizations, languages, days, months, and titles used with a name.
Directions are lowercase as compass points (drive north) but capitalized as regions (the South). In titles, capitalize the first and last words and all major words, leaving short articles and prepositions lowercase.
The patterns behind English spelling: i before e except after c (with exceptions), dropping a silent e before vowel suffixes (hope/hoping), changing y to i (carry/carried), and doubling final consonants in stressed syllables (occur/occurred).
The ‘i before e’ rule bends for weird, height, either, and seize, so treat it as a starting point. When unsure on the exam, write the candidate spellings mentally and trust the rule-based form over the one that merely looks familiar.
An independent clause can stand alone; a dependent clause cannot. Sentences are simple (one independent), compound (two independent), complex (independent + dependent), or compound-complex (both).
A dependent clause has a subject and verb but starts with a subordinator (because, although, when, if) that leaves it incomplete. Varying sentence structure is also a style skill — strings of simple sentences read as choppy.
A fragment is an incomplete sentence missing a subject, a verb, or a complete thought; a run-on fuses two independent clauses with no punctuation; a comma splice joins them with only a comma.
Watch for fragments that begin with because, although, or which — they feel sentence-like but depend on something else. Length is no test: a long fragment is still a fragment and a short run-on is still a run-on.