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The heart and blood vessels, which transport oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and wastes; blood flows right atrium, right ventricle, lungs, left atrium, left ventricle, body.
The pulmonary artery is the famous exception to ‘arteries carry oxygenated blood’ — it carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs, while the pulmonary veins return oxygenated blood to the left atrium. Valves between chambers prevent backflow, and exchange with tissues happens across capillary walls.
The airway and lungs — nose/mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli — where oxygen enters the blood and carbon dioxide leaves by diffusion across the alveolar walls.
Air follows the pressure gradient: when the diaphragm and rib muscles expand the chest cavity, pressure inside drops below atmospheric pressure and air flows in. Rising blood carbon dioxide — not low oxygen — is the main trigger that speeds breathing.
The gastrointestinal tract (mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine) plus accessory organs (liver, gallbladder, pancreas) that break food down and absorb nutrients.
Mechanical digestion (chewing, stomach churning) increases surface area while chemical digestion (enzymes, stomach acid, bile) breaks bonds. Carbohydrate digestion starts in the mouth with salivary amylase, protein digestion starts in the acidic stomach with pepsin, and bile from the liver emulsifies fats in the small intestine.
The body's rapid control network: the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) processes information carried to and from the body by the peripheral nervous system's neurons.
The autonomic division runs involuntary functions with two opposing branches: sympathetic (fight or flight — faster heart rate, dilated pupils) and parasympathetic (rest and digest). The myelin sheath insulates axons and speeds conduction.
Glands — pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, gonads — that release hormones into the blood to regulate growth, metabolism, stress, blood sugar, and reproduction.
Compared with the nervous system, endocrine signaling is slower but longer-lasting and reaches every tissue with a receptor. Most hormones are governed by negative feedback — the response shuts off further release, as when rising thyroid hormone suppresses the pituitary’s TSH.
Blood carries red cells (oxygen via hemoglobin), white cells (defense), platelets (clotting), and plasma; the immune system mounts innate (immediate, nonspecific) and adaptive (targeted, with memory) defenses.
T cells coordinate the adaptive response and kill infected cells directly, and the lymphatic system filters pathogens through lymph nodes while returning tissue fluid to the blood. Type O negative blood is the universal red-cell donor and AB positive the universal recipient.
The skin (epidermis over dermis over hypodermis), hair, nails, and glands — the body's first barrier, temperature regulator, vitamin D producer, and sensory surface.
As the first line of innate defense, intact skin physically blocks pathogens while its acidic secretions slow microbial growth. Melanocytes in the epidermis produce melanin, which shields deeper layers from ultraviolet damage.