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The 206 adult bones plus cartilage and ligaments that support the body, protect organs, anchor muscles, store calcium, and produce blood cells in red marrow.
Bone is living tissue, constantly remodeled by osteoblasts (build) and osteoclasts (break down) under hormonal control, which is how the skeleton doubles as the body’s calcium bank. Joints range from immovable skull sutures to freely movable ball-and-socket joints like the hip.
Three muscle types — skeletal (voluntary, striated, moves bones), cardiac (involuntary, striated, heart only), and smooth (involuntary, lines organs and vessels) — that produce movement and heat.
Skeletal muscles work in opposing pairs across joints — the biceps flexes the elbow while the triceps extends it — and contraction occurs when actin and myosin filaments slide past each other, an energy-hungry process that also generates body heat (shivering).
The kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra, which filter blood, remove nitrogenous waste as urine, and regulate fluid volume, electrolytes, blood pressure, and pH.
Flow order: kidney, ureter, bladder, urethra. The hormone ADH increases water reabsorption to concentrate urine when the body is dehydrated, and the kidneys also release erythropoietin, which tells bone marrow to make red blood cells.
The organs that produce gametes (sperm in the testes, eggs in the ovaries) and sex hormones (testosterone, estrogen, progesterone), enabling fertilization and, in females, pregnancy.
Fertilization normally occurs in the fallopian tube, after which the embryo implants in the uterine lining. Estrogen and progesterone prepare and maintain that lining, and their fall triggers menstruation.
Standard reference language for the body: directional pairs like anterior/posterior, superior/inferior, medial/lateral, proximal/distal, plus the sagittal (left-right), frontal/coronal (front-back), and transverse (top-bottom) planes.
The sagittal plane divides the body into left and right (midsagittal if exactly midline), the frontal (coronal) plane into front and back, and the transverse plane into upper and lower. Superficial and deep describe distance from the body surface.
The body's maintenance of a stable internal environment (temperature, blood glucose, pH) using feedback loops — mostly negative feedback, where the response counteracts the change.
Every loop has a sensor, a control center (often the hypothalamus), and an effector that carries out the response. Failure of homeostasis underlies disease — diabetes is, at root, a broken glucose feedback loop.
Life's structural hierarchy: cells form tissues, tissues form organs, organs form organ systems, and systems form the organism.
An organ is two or more tissue types working as a unit — the stomach uses all four. Surprising members of the connective family, like blood, adipose tissue, and bone, are frequent exam answers.