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The specialized structures inside a cell: the nucleus stores DNA, mitochondria make ATP, ribosomes build proteins, the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus process and ship them, and lysosomes digest waste.
Prokaryotes (bacteria) lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; eukaryotes (plants, animals, fungi) have both. Cells that need lots of energy, like cardiac muscle, are packed with mitochondria — structure tracks function.
Movement across the cell membrane: diffusion moves solutes high-to-low concentration without energy, osmosis is the diffusion of water toward higher solute concentration, and active transport pumps substances against the gradient using ATP.
Passive transport (diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion through channel proteins) needs no energy; active transport and bulk transport (endocytosis, exocytosis) cost ATP. The membrane’s selective permeability is what makes a gradient possible at all.
Mitosis makes two identical diploid cells for growth and repair; meiosis makes four genetically unique haploid gametes through two divisions with crossing over.
Crossing over in meiosis I shuffles segments between homologous chromosomes, which (with independent assortment) is why siblings differ. Errors in chromosome separation, called nondisjunction, produce conditions like trisomy 21.
DNA stores the genetic code in base pairs (A-T, G-C); transcription copies a gene into mRNA (A-U, G-C) in the nucleus, and translation reads mRNA three bases (one codon) at a time at the ribosome to build a protein.
DNA is double-stranded with a deoxyribose sugar; RNA is single-stranded with ribose. Each codon specifies one amino acid, tRNA delivers the matching amino acid, and a mutation that changes a codon can change the protein — the molecular root of genetic disease.
Inheritance through allele pairs: genotype is the allele combination (homozygous or heterozygous), phenotype is the observable trait, dominant alleles mask recessive ones, and a Punnett square predicts offspring ratios.
A heterozygous organism (Bb) shows the dominant trait but can pass the hidden recessive allele on — the definition of a carrier. Sex-linked traits ride the X chromosome, which is why disorders like red-green colorblindness appear far more often in males.
The four molecule families of life: carbohydrates (quick energy; monomer = monosaccharide), lipids (stored energy, membranes; fats are not true polymers), proteins (structure and enzymes; monomer = amino acid), and nucleic acids (information; monomer = nucleotide).
Lipids include fats, phospholipids (the membrane bilayer), and steroids like cholesterol. Building polymers releases water (dehydration synthesis) while digestion adds water back to break bonds (hydrolysis) — the chemistry behind the digestive system’s work.